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Models, language and samples

Communication models for writing

Some communication models for writing for the public include:

the Deficit (also Dissemination) model
the Dialogue model
the Engagement (also Participation) model.

The overall aim of these models is to engage the public in gaining knowledge and understanding of academic research and ideas. While these models are usually applied in STEMM disciplines, they can be adapted to HASS disciplines. Academics who write for the general public hope to promote informed public discourses.

The Deficit (Dissemination) Model assumes that the public lacks knowledge about academic research and ideas. This model presents a one-way communication between academics and the public. That is, academics select knowledge and ideas they consider to be in the public interest. They then communicate this knowledge in plain, straightforward language to the public, who receive the knowledge.
Examples include communications such as a media release informing the public of medical research findings, a newspaper article explaining a current social phenomena, or a talk presenting evidence of climate change in Australia.
The Dialogue Model recognizes multiple perspectives on academic research and ideas. This model seeks to encourage debate and discussion amongst the general public while also aiming to inform and share. The Dialogue Model also engages with a range of intersectional frameworks such as ethics, class, religion, gender, education, race and culture, as well as others. Recognising these relevant intersectionalities encourages general public engagement with the topic. The Dialogue Model engages reciprocal communication between academics and the general public – the general public is invited to comment.
Examples include communications like a television discussion on a media controversy with a panel of academic experts taking questions from a live studio audience, the blog page of a psychologist inviting comments from the general public, or an interactive audience presentation by a social media academic with a more conversational and informal style.
The Engagement (Participation) Model extends on the Dialogue Model and aspires to democratic ideals by seeking active public participation in all communication contexts. In this model, academics and the public participate in collaborative cycles of gathering information and consulting to produce knowledge and understanding about particular academic research and ideas.
Examples include the engagement of the Citizen Scientist in various scientific projects. A Citizen Scientist is a volunteer who offers their skills and enthusiasm to work alongside professional scientists on a project doing things like data gathering, monitoring, providing feedback, etc. This model of communicating with the general public has been adopted by other disciplines too, such as Citizen Linguists, Citizen Biologists and Citizen Astronomers, to name a few.

Content, form and features

Academic journalism is telling a story about research and ideas in accessible language. You will need to consider concepts such as content selection, form and structure, and how to approach the key features typical to these publications in order to write an engaging article for the general public.

The content you select will be drawn from your area of expertise and should be framed by current public discourses on the topic. Focus on what readers need and want to know about the topic.
Content relevance is essential. Your choice of content may be determined by the ‘news cycle’, which is a media spotlight on particular events that happen throughout the year. For example, as a medical specialist, you might write an article for ‘Heart Health Awareness Week’. As an education specialist, you might write an article for ‘Book Week’ or as an environmentalist, you might write an article for ‘Earth Day’. Research key news spotlight events that occur annually in your area of expertise, and plan to write for the general public about them.
Academic journalists begin by considering the following guiding questions to sketch out their article content:
- Who? Identify the target audience and the ‘characters’ in the article’s story.
- What? Outline the key plot points or events in the story.
- Where? State the location(s).
- When? Give a timeframe – this may include day, season, year or even historical context.
- Why? Identify your purpose and the causes of the content you’re writing about.
- How? Explain the way(s) the content occurred.
By following these guiding questions, you can brainstorm your article and then undertake further research prior to writing if necessary.
The two most common forms for writing for the general public are news reports and feature articles.
News report
News reports present information on newsworthy people, events and issues. These articles present essential information which answers the following questions: what, who, where, when, why and how. The information is planned using the ‘inverted pyramid’ structure – that is, information is organised from the most important to the least important. This is useful for editing purposes, but also generates reader engagement. A news report usually commences with a lead paragraph and is then further built through a series of short body paragraphs, which may have subheadings. Such articles may often contain either informative or dramatic headlines. Generally, news articles incorporate facts, evidence and expert or eyewitness quotes which are presented in a neutral and formal style using plain English. A news report does not present the author’s opinion and, therefore, is written in a neutral tone.
Feature article
Feature articles provide background information, an overview of opinions, an explanation about a situation or an analysis of a topic. Feature articles may be investigative in their approach. That is, they may outline causes, consequences and solutions, or they may ‘build a case’ for or against an issue or situation. Features are commonly structured in a problem/solution or question/answer format. Features may include subheadings and the use of short paragraphs. Generally, features are written in a semi-formal style and may incorporate simplified subject-specific vocabulary. They may be supported with visuals like photographs, maps, charts and graphs.

Key writing features

Introductions	Begin with a ‘hook’ to engage the reader. Some effective ‘hooks’ include: a hypothetical a real life or recent event an interesting question (typically not in the style of an academic research question) a personal anecdote key quote by an expert statement of your position on the topic direct reader address (‘you’, ‘we’, ‘us’ pronouns) compelling facts and figures concise summary of a key finding.
Conclusions	Leave the reader with a clear ‘take away message’. Conclusions may contain the following elements: brief summary of key findings (avoid academic summary) key quote a call to action recommendations a caution.
Vocabulary	Use simple, everyday language. Write using concrete vocabulary. Contractions are acceptable.
Jargon	Avoid the use of excessive discipline-specific jargon – use familiar, colloquial language. Ensure that your language choice is clear and accurate to avoid confusion and misinterpretation by non-expert audiences. If the use of jargon is unavoidable give an accessible definition immediately after the jargon term. You could also give an example to illustrate the meaning of the jargon.
Sentences	Write in non-academic prose - that is, avoid lengthy sentences with multiple clauses and phrases. Use a variety of sentence lengths to ensure clear communication.
Pronouns	Personal (‘you’, ‘me’) and collective pronouns (‘we’, ‘us’) are acceptable to encourage audience engagement and investment in the subject.
References/ Citations	Generally, writing for the general public does not require in-text citations and references. However, check the guidelines of the publication you are targeting.

Register, tone and voice

‘Voice’ refers to how you ‘sound’ as a writer. You’ll need to sound relatable and convincing - the reader needs to be reassured that you’re the expert. Does your writing come across as conversational or more formal? As a writer, your choice of words, grammar and other linguistic tools convey your writer’s voice. Your choice of register, tone and active or passive voice also convey how your writing ‘sounds’ to readers.

Register
Tone
Voice

Register means using the appropriate words for the communication context. A medical article may require a sophisticated level of vocabulary. A film review may require a conversational level of vocabulary. You will need to adjust your register to the communication context.

Generally, register is a continuum from formal to informal. For example:

Diagram showing a scale of formal to informal with two examples. The first example from formal to informal is: Chronic fatigue, exhausted, tired, stuffed. The second example from formal to informal is: Victuals, sustenance, food, grub.

In writing for the general public, aim to use a semi-formal register – a register midway between formal and informal. This is often described as a conversational register.

Your tone expresses register and makes an immediate impression on your audience. Tone is the ‘sound’ of your writer’s voice in spoken or written texts. The author’s tone signals their feelings and attitudes about the subject.

Writers achieve tone through the use of linguistic resources such as vocabulary, sentence structures and vocal effects just to name a few. Tone often changes throughout a written or spoken text – and, because people have such a complex range of feelings and attitudes, there are many, many ways to express tone.

Tone commonly falls into three categories: positive, neutral and negative.

When writing for the general public, aim to use a combination of active and passive voice to enliven your article and engage readers.

Features of the active voice:

The subject of the sentence performs the action.
The sentence focuses on the action of the verb.

The active voice expresses action and conveys vivid descriptions. For example:

The academic review board undertook a survey of undergraduate STEMM students in 2022.

Features of the passive voice:

The subject receives the action.
The object is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
The subject is placed at the end of the sentence.

The majority of academic writing is written in the passive voice to achieve a formal, authoritative and cautious style. For example:

A survey of undergraduate STEMM students was undertaken by the academic review board in 2022.

To find out more about engaging your readers, learn how to find, express and maintain your writing voice.

Annotated samples

The following annotated samples of published academic journalism from Lens highlight common content, structure and writing features.

Example 1: Environment View

Example 2: Economy and Business View

Example 3: Art, society and politics View

Example 4: Science and nature View

Example 5: Medical and health View

Cottrell, S. (2019). The study skills handbook. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
Sternheimer, K. (2017). The social scientist’s soapbox: Adventures in writing public sociology. Taylor Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315165363
Swain, J.W., & Swain, K.D. (2014). Effective writing in the public sector. Taylor Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315704913

Taking it further

You can browse a range of articles written by academics for the general public at the following sites. Both sites are supported by Monash University.

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