Heterogeneity between menopausal status and depression: A cross-sectional study with a unique analytical approach

Objectives

The extent to which menopause status contributes to depressive symptoms remains controversial. This study aimed to examine associations between menopausal status and depressive symptoms and the heterogeneity in these associations.

Methods

We conducted three consecutive national surveys of community-dwelling Australian women aged 18-79 years between October 2013 and July 2017. Depressive symptoms were measured by Beck Depression Inventory II (BDI-II) score (range 0-63). Symptoms were classified into a binary outcome of minimal to mild (BDI-II score <20) and moderate to severe (MS) (BDI-II score ≥20). The average effect (average treatment effect [ATE]) and conditional average effect of the menopausal status on depressive symptoms were investigated by causal forest method.

Results

The prevalence of MS depressive symptoms in 10,351 participants was 23.7% (95% CI: 22.9-24.5). Compared with premenopause, the BDI-II score was higher for the menopause transition (ATE = 2.43 units, 95% CI: 1.20-3.65) and postmenopause (ATE = 3.03 units, 95% CI: 1.25-4.81). Compared with premenopause, the menopause transition was associated with an average increase in the prevalence of MS depressive symptoms by 6 percentage points (ATE = 0.06, 95% CI: 0.01-0.12). There were no differences in depressive symptoms between the menopause transition and postmenopause.In menopause transition, the BDI-II score was -1.22 units lower and the prevalence of MS depressive symptoms was 5 percentage points lower among employed women compared with unemployed women. In postmenopause, the BDI-II score was 1.75 units higher for unpartnered women compared with partnered women.

Conclusions

The menopause transition and postmenopause are associated with a higher BDI-II score and an increased prevalence of MS depressive symptoms compared with premenopause. These associations are favourably modified by paid employment in the menopause transition and unfavourably by being unpartnered postmenopause.

Islam RM, Rana J, Davis SR. Exploring heterogeneity in the associations between menopausal status and depression: a cross-sectional study with a unique analytical approach. Menopause. 2025 May 1;32(5):420-427. doi: 10.1097/GME.0000000000002519.